The Impact of Climate Change on Urban Development in Nepal

Dr. Sunita Sharma, DRR, CC and GESI Expert

1. Introduction

Nepal is experiencing one of the fastest rates of urbanization in South Asia, with particularly rapid expansion in the Kathmandu Valley and emerging metropolitan centers such as Pokhara and Biratnagar. This transformation is reshaping economic opportunities, population distribution, and land use, but it is unfolding within a geologically fragile Himalayan environment. The country’s steep mountain slopes, high seismic activity, and inherently unstable soils create a physical landscape that is already prone to natural hazards. Urban growth in such terrain magnifies risks, as unplanned settlements, poorly engineered infrastructure, and encroachment on marginal lands increase exposure to disaster impacts. Climate change is compounding these vulnerabilities. Intensified and erratic rainfall patterns are triggering more frequent floods and landslides, while rising temperatures exacerbate heat stress in densely built urban areas. The interplay of topography, climatic shifts, and rapid urban expansion also contributes to deteriorating air quality, already a significant public health challenge by trapping pollutants in valley basins and amplifying respiratory illnesses. These environmental stresses place mounting pressure on urban infrastructure, strain essential services such as water supply and drainage systems, and threaten economic stability, particularly for marginalized urban populations who have limited adaptive capacity.

From a policy perspective, urban planning and climate adaptation in Nepal are formally guided by frameworks such as the Local Government Operation Act (2017), which devolves planning authority to municipalities; the National Urban Development Strategy (2017), which sets a vision for sustainable urban growth; and the Climate Change Policy (2019), which outlines adaptation and mitigation priorities. However, the enforcement of these policies remains inconsistent, and their integration across, particularly between urban development, disaster risk reduction, and climate adaptation, has been limited.

This article examines how climate change is influencing patterns of urban growth in Nepal, critically reviews the scope and effectiveness of existing adaptation initiatives, and identifies urgent and long-term measures to address these intersecting challenges. Recommended actions include robust policy reforms to close implementation gaps, the enforcement of climate-resilient building codes, and the adoption of integrated land-use planning that accounts for hazard risk and environmental sustainability. Strengthening institutional capacity, fostering community engagement, and leveraging nature-based solutions will be essential to building urban systems that are not only resilient to climate impacts but also socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable.

2. Current Status & Effects of Climate Change on Urban Areas

Climate change poses significant challenges to urban development in Nepal by increasing the frequency of extreme weather events, straining water and energy resources, and exacerbating health and infrastructure vulnerabilities. Such includes:

• Increased Flooding and Waterlogging: More frequent and intense rainfall events cause urban flooding, damaging infrastructure and disrupting daily life.
• Heatwaves and Rising Temperatures: Higher urban temperatures increase energy demand (e.g., for cooling), strain public health, and worsen living conditions.
• Pressure on Water Resources: Changing rainfall patterns and glacial melt affect urban water supply, leading to shortages and competition.
• Infrastructure Vulnerability: Roads, bridges, drainage, and buildings face higher risks of damage from extreme weather events like floods, landslides, and storms.
• Increased Air Pollution: Climate change can exacerbate air pollution levels, affecting urban health and quality of life.
• Displacement and Migration: Climate-induced disasters in rural areas push populations toward cities, increasing urban overcrowding and informal settlements.
• Challenges in Waste Management: Increased waste generation combined with flooding can hamper effective urban waste disposal.
• Strain on Urban Ecosystems: Urban green spaces and biodiversity suffer from changing climate conditions, reducing their capacity to mitigate heat and pollution.
• Economic Losses: Damage to urban infrastructure and increased disaster response costs impact economic growth and development plans.
• Public Health Risks: Spread of vector-borne diseases (e.g., dengue) intensifies due to changing climate conditions in urban areas.
• Increased Energy Demand: Higher temperatures lead to greater demand for electricity, often stressing supply systems.

3. Adaptation Strategies: Progress and Gaps

• The Constitution of Nepal 2015 (Article 30) guarantees every citizen the fundamental right to live in a clean and healthy environment. It provides the right to compensation for damage caused by environmental pollution or degradation and directs the establishment of legal provisions to maintain a balance between environmental protection and development.
• Under the Local Government Operation Act 2017, Sections 11 and 12 grant rural municipalities and municipalities the authority to protect the environment. This includes responsibilities for environmental conservation and climate adaptation at the local level.
• The 16th Five-Year Plan (2024/25–2028/29) prioritizes climate change in the national development agenda. It promotes climate budgeting and financial coordination and advances practical adaptation and mitigation programs. The plan also emphasizes biodiversity conservation, forest management, and promotion of a green economy.
• Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2015–2030, particularly Goal 13 (Climate Action), Nepal has committed to taking immediate and effective measures to combat climate change and its impacts. This includes integrating climate-related actions into national policies, capacity building, and promoting adaptation. Nepal also expresses commitment to contributing to climate change mitigation and resilient society building through international cooperation.
• The Climate Change Policy 2019 identifies eight thematic areas, including agriculture, forestry, energy, and health. Additionally, Nepal has set clear targets under the Long-Term Zero Carbon Emission Strategy (2021)—reducing 30 million tons of CO₂ by 2030, 50 million tons by 2050, and achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2045.
• Nepal’s National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA) and Local Adaptation Plans of Action (LAPA) have established policy frameworks for adaptation. NAPA sets national priorities, while LAPA empowers community-level projects addressing local vulnerabilities such as flood risk management, drought reduction, and water resource adaptation. However, LAPA faces challenges in implementation due to a lack of institutional mechanisms at the community level and insufficient, reliable financial resources. A top-down approach often undervalues local experiences and priorities. Institutional weaknesses, high turnover rates of government staff, lack of coordination among government levels, and limited technical capacity remain major challenges.

Nepal’s National Building Code (NBC), adopted in 2006, sets standards for earthquake resilience in urban buildings. However, from a risk analysis perspective, the code does not sufficiently include design requirements addressing floods, heatwaves, high winds, and other non-seismic climate risks. Implementation is also inconsistent due to a shortage of skilled personnel, limited technical capacity at local levels, and political interference. Coordination between building code implementation, land use planning, regional regulations, and urban climate risk mapping is weak. From an inclusive perspective, the building code does not adequately address the needs of informal settlements or buildings in already vulnerable conditions. Additionally, a lack of financial mechanisms for the reconstruction or upgrading of risky structures leaves many urban residents continuously exposed to hazards.

Early Warning Systems and Urban Flood Monitoring: Nepal installed its first Doppler weather radar in the western region in 2019 for early warning systems and urban flood monitoring. Plans are underway to install two more radars in the central and eastern regions, which will improve flood forecasting and risk warnings. Previously, community-based early warning systems operated by volunteers have been implemented in flood-prone river basins but lack strong community-led approaches. Currently, only one Doppler radar is operational, which is insufficient to serve central and eastern regions adequately. The capacity to integrate radar data into real-time forecasting and local action is weak. Although community-based early warning systems are important, they are often disconnected from national systems and depend on untrained volunteers. Urban-focused early warning infrastructure is lacking and systems rarely reach vulnerable groups. Institutional coordination between national and local levels is weak, and both levels suffer from long-term financial and technical resource shortages. Due to these factors, early warning effectiveness remains limited in rapidly urbanizing, high-risk areas.

Electric vehicles and low-carbon urban planning have seen positive trends recently, with over 70% of newly imported vehicles being electric, helping reduce urban air pollution and fuel dependency. However, challenges remain in expanding electric public transportation (buses/microbuses), establishing charging infrastructure, and integrating rapid transit systems. The World Bank’s Green, Resilient, and Inclusive Development (GRID) framework emphasizes strategic urban planning that incorporates low-carbon transport, waste and water treatment infrastructure, and climate-smart buildings.

4. Immediate Actions & Short‑term Solutions (Next 1–2 years)  4.1 Strengthening Drainage and Water Management

• Launch emergency retrofitting of stormwater drains in Kathmandu (including permeable pavements, retention ponds, wetlands, detention basins). Urban planners should reclaim flood channels and enforce buffer zones alongside rivers and streams
• Use pilot EbA projects to stabilize slopes (bioengineering with vegetation) and restore wetlands in key flood‑prone wards

4.2 Community Engagement & Monitoring

• Deploy community‑based flood monitoring and early warning tools in informal settlement areas, leveraging mobile apps and citizen science models.
• Integrate local vulnerable groups in adaptation dialogues: women, the elderly, and informal settlers, to co‑design micro‑interventions

4.3 Accelerating Electric Mobility

• Expand EV charging infrastructure, incentivize electric public transit pilot schemes (buses/minibuses), especially in big cities.
• Subsidies or tax breaks for rooftop solar installations in urban residential buildings to reduce peak loads and promote decentralized clean energy.

4.4 Strengthening Early Warning and Risk Assessment

• Complete the rollout of a national weather radar network to improve rainfall forecasts and flood warnings.
• Mandate flood risk mapping in city development plans and issue regular updates.

5. Long‑Term Transformative Solutions (5–10 years)

5.1 Comprehensive Climate‑Sensitive Urban Design

• Adopt integrated urban planning based on climate risk zones: restrict construction in flood plains and hazard-prone slopes.
• Install green infrastructure systematically across cities: parks, permeable roads, green roofs, and open drainage corridors.

5.2 Infrastructure Resilient Road and Transport Corridors

• Climate‑proof critical infrastructure (bridges, roads, hydropower lines) based on multi‑hazard risk assessment, including flood and landslide resistance.
• Invest in resilient transport corridors and create mass transit systems aligned with EV deployment goals.

5.3 Scaling Ecosystem‑Based Adaptation

• Expand Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) such as: urban forests, wetlands, tree-lined buffer zones) into city master plans beyond pilots.
• Fund community‑led forest management and strengthen partnerships with Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs), especially upstream, for watershed protection
• Enhance the capacity of urban ecosystems to provide key services like flood attenuation, soil stabilization, and groundwater recharge, ultimately improving the resilience of vulnerable urban populations to climate change.

5.4 Sustainable Energy & Rooftop Solar Integration

• Promote rooftop solar installation programs across urban residential sectors, paired with regulatory support from Nepal Electricity Authority..
• Pursue pumped‑storage hydropower developments in the Himalayan regions to increase energy security and enable grid flexibility

5.5 Financial Instruments and Private Sector Engagement

• Establish urban climate adaptation funds, channelling public–private finance for resilient investment (charge stations, drainage, retrofits).
• Encourage private sector participation in climate‑smart building certification, green bonds, and infrastructure investment.

6. Legal and Policy Reforms: Addressing Shortcomings

6.1 Strengthen Regulatory Enforcement of NBC and Zoning Codes

• Expand and update the National Building Code to include climate resilience—e.g., minimum elevation for flood-prone areas, slope stability zones.
• Enforce land‑use zoning strictly to prevent construction on flood plains and steep slopes; penalize violations to reduce informal settlement encroachment

6.2 Decentralized Institutional Capacity & Coordination

• Strengthen the institutional capacity of municipal and provincial governments for climate risk management and adaptation financing.
• Clarify mandates between local (municipal), provincial, and federal levels to ensure coordination, for example, between urban development departments and environment agencies overseeing LAPAs.

6.3 Integrating Climate into Urban Development Planning

• Require that all municipal urban plans include climate risk assessments as baseline data before approving projects.
• Mainstream EbA and green infrastructure guidelines should be mandatory components in new development proposals.

6.4 Protecting Conservation and Upstream Ecosystems

• Reconsider policy changes such as permitting hydropower within protected areas, which conservationists warn undermine ecological gains and resilience
• Ensure legal safeguards for buffer zones and sustainable water flow regimes in river basins, with effective public consultation mechanisms

6.5 Improving Financing Mechanisms and Transparency

• Create transparent mechanisms for climate adaptation financing and procurement.
• Enable municipal green bonds or local climate trust funds.
• Require accountability in urban beautification and infrastructure projects to avoid land speculation and corruption that hinder properly scaled infrastructure (for example, delays to the outer ring road project due to land mafia)

7. Conclusion

Climate change poses an existential threat to Nepal’s rapidly urbanizing cities. Catastrophic floods, landslides, toxic air, and rising heat are already disrupting livelihoods, infrastructure, and health. Without decisive action, urban development risks undermining long-term sustainability and public safety.

Yet Nepal has opportunities to turn the tide through ecosystem-based adaptation, strategic urban planning, investment in resilient infrastructure, and low-carbon transport. Success depends on stronger legal frameworks, decentralized capacity, robust enforcement, and inclusive, community-led decision-making.

By reforming building codes, ramping up green finance, protecting upstream ecosystems, and integrating climate risk into every element of urban planning, Nepal can foster cities that are greener, safer, and more resilient. The journey from reactive disaster response to proactive resilience building will not be instantaneous but with concerted policy, institutional reform, and inclusive action, urban Nepal can adapt and thrive in a changing climate.